south korea

2009-11-07T11:45:27Z

South Korea

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Republic of Korea

대한민국
大韓民國
Daehan-minguk


Flag	Coat of arms

Anthem: Aegukga (애국가)
The Patriotic Song

Capital

Seoul
37°35′N 127°0′E / 37.583°N 127°E

Official languages

Korean

Demonym South Korean, Korean

Government

Presidential republic

- President Lee Myung-bak

- Prime Minister Chung Un-chan

Legislature

National Assembly

Establishment

- Founding of Gojoseon 2333 BC^[1]

- Japan’s occupation of Korea August 29, 1910

- Independence declared March 1, 1919

- Provisional Government April 13, 1919

- Liberation August 15, 1945

- Constitution July 17, 1948

- Government Proclaimed August 15, 1948

Area

- Total 100,140 km² (108th)
38,622 sq mi

- Water (%) 0.3

Population

- estimate 48,379,392 (26th)

- Density 493/km² (21st)
1,274/sq mi

GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate

- Total $1.344 trillion^[2] (13th)

- Per capita $27,692^[2] (32nd)

GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate

- Total $929.124 billion^[2] (15th)

- Per capita $19,136.^[2] (36th)

Gini (2007) 31.3 (low)^[3]

HDI (2007) ▲ 0.937^[4] (very high) (26th)

Currency South Korean won (₩) (KRW)

Time zone Korea Standard Time (UTC+9)

- Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+9)

Date formats yyyy년 mm월 dd일
yyyy/mm/dd (CE)

Drives on the right

Internet TLD

.kr

Calling code 82

¹ Mobile phone system CDMA, WCDMA, HSDPA and WiBro

² Domestic power supply 220V/60 Hz, CEE 7/7 sockets

South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK) (Korean: 대한민국, pronounced [tɛːhanminɡuk̚] ( listen)) and often simply referred to as Korea, is a country in East Asia, located on the southern half of the Korean Peninsula. It is neighbored by China to the west, Japan to the east, and North Korea to the north. Its capital is Seoul, the second largest metropolitan city in the world^[5] and a major global city.^[6] South Korea lies in a temperate climate region with a predominantly mountainous terrain. Its territory covers a total area of 100,032 square kilometers and has a population of over 48 million, making it the third most densely populated (significantly sized) country in the world (after Bangladesh and Taiwan).^[7]

Archaeological findings show that the Korean Peninsula was occupied as early as the Lower Paleolithic period.^[8]^[9] Korean history begins with the founding of Gojoseon in 2333 BCE by Dangun. Following the unification of Three Kingdoms of Korea under Silla 668 CE, Korea went through the Goryeo and Joseon Dynasty as one nation until the end of the Korean Empire in 1910, when Korea was annexed by Japan. After liberation and division at the end of World War II, the nation was divided into North and South Korea. The latter was established in 1948 as a democracy. A war between the two Koreas ended in an uneasy cease-fire. During a period of military rule, the South Korean economy grew significantly, and the country was transformed into a major economy^[10] and a full democracy.

South Korea is a presidential republic consisting of 16 administrative divisions and is a developed country with a high standard of living. It has the fourth largest economy in Asia and the 15th largest in the world. The economy is export-driven, with production focusing on electronics, automobiles, ships, machinery, petrochemicals and robotics. South Korea is a member of the United Nations, WTO, OECD and G-20 major economies. It is also a founding member of APEC and the East Asia Summit, and a major non-NATO ally of the United States. More recently, South Korea's cultural popularity has increased in Asia and beyond, known as the Korean Wave.^[11]^[12]

[edit] Government

Main article: Government of South Korea

The National Assembly of South Korea

Like many democracies,^[13] South Korea's government is divided into three branches: executive, judicial, and legislative. The executive and legislative branches operate primarily at the national level, although various ministries in the executive branch also carry out local functions. Local governments are semi-autonomous, and contain executive and legislative bodies of their own. The judicial branch operates at both the national and local levels. South Korea is a constitutional democracy.

The South Korean government's structure is determined by the Constitution of the Republic of Korea. This document has been revised several times since its first promulgation in 1948 (see History of South Korea). However, it has retained many broad characteristics; with the exception of the short-lived Second Republic of South Korea, the country has always had a presidential system with an independent chief executive.^[14] South Korea has developed a successful liberal democracy since the 1960s and the first direct election was held in 1948. The CIA World Factbook describes South Korea's democracy as a "fully functioning modern democracy".^[15]

[edit] History

[edit] Before division

Main article: History of Korea

Korea began with the founding of Joseon (The name Gojoseon is almost always used to prevent confusion with another Joseon dynasty founded in 14th century; the prefix Go- means 'old' or 'earlier') in 2333 BCE by Dangun.^[16] Gojoseon expanded until it controlled much of the northern Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria. After numerous wars with the Chinese Han Dynasty, Gojoseon disintegrated, leading to the Proto-Three Kingdoms of Korea period.

In the early centuries of the Common Era, Buyeo, Okjeo, Dongye, and the Samhan confederacy occupied the peninsula and southern Manchuria. Of the various small states, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla grew to control the peninsula as the Three Kingdoms. The unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla in 676 led to the North South States Period, in which much of the Korean peninsula was controlled by Unified Silla, while Balhae succeeded the northern parts of Goguryeo. In Unified Silla, poetry and art was encouraged, and Buddhist culture flourished. Relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful during this time. However, Unified Silla weakened under internal strife, and surrendered to Goryeo in 935. Balhae, Silla's neighbor to the north, was formed as a successor state to Goguryeo. During its height, Balhae controlled most of Manchuria and parts of Russia. It fell to the Khitan in 926.

Jikji, the earliest known book printed with movable metal type in 1377. Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris.

After the North-South Period, successor states fought for control during the Later Three Kingdoms period. The peninsula was soon united by Emperor Taejo of Goryeo. Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state and created the Jikji in 1377, using the world's oldest movable metal printing press.^[17]

The Mongol invasions in the 13th century greatly weakened Goryeo. However, Goryeo continued to rule Korea as a tributary ally to the Mongols. After the fall of the Mongolian Empire, Goryeo continued its rule. After severe political strife and continued invasions, Goryeo was replaced by the Joseon Dynasty in 1388 following a rebellion by General Yi Seong-gye.

King Taejo declared the new name of Korea as Joseon in reference to Gojoseon, and moved the capital to Seoul. The first 200 years of the Joseon Dynasty was marked by relative peace and saw the creation of Hangul by Sejong the Great in the 14th century and the rise and influence of Confucianism.

Gyeongbok Palace is the largest of the Five Grand Palaces built during the Joseon Dynasty.

Between 1592 and 1598, the Japanese invaded Korea. Toyotomi Hideyoshi led the forces and tried to invade the Asian continent through Korea, but was eventually repelled with action of the Righteous army and assistance from Ming Dynasty China. This war also saw the rise of the career of Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his "turtle ship". In the 1620s and 1630s Joseon suffered invasions by the Manchu who eventually also conquered the Chinese Ming Dynasty.

After invasions from Manchuria, Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Especially, King Yeongjo and King Jeongjo led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty.

During the last years of the Joseon Dynasty, Korea's isolationist policy earned it the name the "Hermit Kingdom", primarily for protection against Western imperialism before it was forced to open trade beginning an era leading into Japanese colonial rule.

[edit] After division

Main article: History of South Korea

Despite the initial plan of a unified Korea in the 1943 Cairo Declaration, escalating Cold War antagonism between the US and Soviet Union eventually led to the establishment of two separate governments supported by foreign powers, each with its own ideology, leading to Korea's division into two political entities: North Korea and South Korea. In the North, a former anti-Japanese guerrilla and communist activist, Kim Il-sung gained power through political mobilization of Koreans, and in the South, an exiled and right-wing Korean political leader, Syngman Rhee, was installed as president.

The Seoul Olympic Stadium viewed from the Han River that celebrated the 1988 Summer Olympics.

On 25 June 1950, North Korea launched an attempt to unify the country by military force which lead to the Korean War. At the time, the Soviet Union had boycotted the United Nations (UN), thus forfeiting their veto rights. This allowed the UN to intervene in a civil war when it became apparent that the superior North Korean forces would unify the entire country. The Soviet Union and China backed North Korea, with the later participation of millions of Chinese troops. After huge advances on both sides, and massive losses among Korean civilians in both the north and the south, the war eventually reached a stalemate. The 1953 armistice, never signed by South Korea, split the peninsula along the demilitarized zone near the original demarcation line. No peace treaty was signed, resulting in the two countries remaining technically at war. At least 2.5 million people died during the Korean War.^[18]

In 1960, a student uprising led to the resignation of the autocratic President Syngman Rhee. A period of political instability followed, broken by General Park Chung-hee's military coup (the "5-16 coup d'état") against the weak and ineffectual government the next year. Park took over as president until his assassination in 1979, overseeing rapid export-led economic growth as well as severe political repression. Park was heavily criticised as a ruthless military dictator, although the Korean economy developed significantly during his tenure.

The years after Park's assassination were marked again by considerable political turmoil as the previously repressed opposition leaders all campaigned to run for president in the sudden political void. In 1980 there was another coup d'état by General Chun Doo-hwan against the transitional government of Choi Gyu Ha, the interim president and a former prime minister under Park. Chun assumed the presidency. His seizure of power triggered nationwide protests demanding democracy, in particular in the city of Gwangju, in Jeollanam-do, where Chun sent special forces to violently suppress the Gwangju Democratization Movement.

View of the Seoul World Cup Stadium used during the 2002 FIFA World Cup co-hosted by South Korea and Japan.

Until 1987, Chun and his government held Korea under a despotic rule when Park Jong Chul—a student attending Seoul National University—was tortured to death. On 10 June, the Catholic Priests' Association for Justice revealed Park's torture, igniting huge demonstrations around the country. Eventually, Chun's party, the Democratic Justice Party, and its leader, Roh Tae-woo announced the June 29th Declaration, which included the direct election of the president. Roh went on to win the election by a narrow margin against the two main opposition leaders, Kim Dae-Jung and Kim Young-Sam.

View of Seoul's Gangnam district today. South Korea's economic success is often called the Miracle on the Han River.

In 1988, Seoul successfully hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics, and continuing economic development led to membership in the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1996. As with many of its Asian neighbors, South Korea was adversely affected by the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, however the country was able to recover and continue its economic growth.

In June 2000, as part of president Kim Dae-Jung's Sunshine Policy' of engagement, a North-South summit took place in Pyongyang, the capital of North Korea. Later that year, Kim received the Nobel Peace Prize "for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular."^[19]

In 2002, South Korea and Japan jointly co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup, however South Korean and Japanese relations later soured due to conflicting claims of sovereignty over the Liancourt Rocks (known as Dokdo in Korea and Takeshima in Japan), in what became known as the Liancourt Rocks dispute.

[edit] Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of South Korea

South Korea maintains diplomatic relations with approximately 170 countries. The country has also been a member of the United Nations since 1991, when it became a member state at the same time as North Korea. On January 1, 2007, South Korean Foreign Minister Ban Ki-moon assumed the post of UN Secretary-General. It has also developed links with the Association of Southeast Asian Nations as both a member of ASEAN Plus three, a body of observers, and the East Asia Summit (EAS).

Beginning in May 2007, South Korea and the European Union are negotiating a free trade agreement to reduce trade barriers.^[20] South Korea is also negotiating a Free Trade Agreement with Canada,^[21] and another with New Zealand.^[22]

[edit] United States

President of South Korea Lee Myung-bak, with former U.S. President George W. Bush

The United States engaged in the decolonization of Korea (mainly South, Soviet Union engaged North Korea) from Japan after World War II. After 3 years of military administration by the United States, the South Korean government was established. Upon the onset of the Korean War, the United States Military was sent to South Korea to defend against the invasion by North Korea and later China. Since then, the two nations have had strong economic, diplomatic and military ties, although they have at times disagreed with regards to policies towards North Korea. Currently, the U.S. Eighth Army, Seventh Air Force and U.S. Naval Forces Korea are stationed in South Korea.

[edit] China

Historically, Korea has had relatively close relations with the Republic of China. Before the formation of South Korea, Korean independence fighters worked with Chinese soldiers during the Japanese occupation. However, after World War II, the People's Republic of China embraced Maoism while South Korea fell under the influence of the United States. The PRC assisted North Korea with manpower and supplies during the Korean War, and in its aftermath the diplomatic relationship between South Korea and the PRC almost completely ceased. Relations thawed gradually and South Korea and the PRC re-established formal diplomatic relations on August 24, 1992. The two countries sought to improve bilateral relations and lifted the forty-year old trade embargo, and^[23] South Korean-Chinese relations have improved steadily since 1992.^[23] The Republic of Korea broke off official relations with the Republic of China upon gaining official relations with the People's Republic.

[edit] Japan

Liancourt Rocks has become an issue known as the Liancourt Rocks dispute.

Although there were no formal diplomatic ties between South Korea and Japan after the end of World War II, South Korea and Japan signed the Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea in 1965 to establish diplomatic ties. There is heavy anti-Japanese sentiment in South Korea due to a number of unsettled Japanese-Korean disputes, many of which stem from the period of Japanese occupation. During World War II, more than 100,000 Koreans were forced to serve in the Imperial Japanese Army.^[24]^[25] Korean women were lured to the war front to serve the Imperial Japanese Army as sexual slaves, called comfort women.^[26][3] Longstanding issues such as Japanese war crimes against Korean civilians, the visits by Japanese politicians to the Yasukuni Shrine honoring Japanese soldiers killed at war (including some class A war criminals), the re-writing of Japanese textbooks to overlook Japanese aggression during World War II, and the territorial disputes over Dokdo Island^[27] continue to trouble Korean-Japanese relations. In response to then-Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi's repeated visits to the Yasukuni Shrine, former President Roh Moo-hyun suspended all summit talks between South Korea and Japan. Japan sent much aid to support development of South Korea after the war, but the amount of compensation for colonial suffering was questioned for its legitimacy. The amount of money they paid and the method of distribution to the individual caused protest among those people who suffered from forced labor and abuse.^[28]

[edit] North Korea

Both North and South Korea continue to officially claim sovereignty over the entire peninsula and any outlying islands. With longstanding animosity following the Korean War from 1950 to 1953, North Korea and South Korea signed an agreement to pursue peace.^[29] On October 4, 2007, Roh Moo-Hyun and North Korean leader Kim Jong-il signed an eight-point agreement on issues of permanent peace, high-level talks, economic cooperation, renewal of train services, highway and air travel, and a joint Olympic cheering squad.^[29]

Despite the Sunshine Policy and efforts at reconciliation, the progress was complicated by North Korean missile tests in 1993, 1998, 2006 and 2009. As of mid 2009^[update], relationships between North and South Korea are very tense; North Korea has been reported to have deployed missiles,^[30] ended its former agreements with South Korea,^[31] and threatened South Korea and the United States not to interfere with a satellite launch it had planned.^[32] As of 2009, North and South Korea are still technically at war (having never signed an armistice after the Korean War) and share the world’s most heavily fortified border.^[33] On May 27, 2009, North Korea declared that the ceasefire treaty, signed post Korean War, is no longer valid due to the South Korean government's pledge to "definitely join" the Proliferation Security Initiative.

[edit] Armed forces

Main article: Military of South Korea

ROK Amphibious Task Force conducts amphibious landing

A history of domination by its neighbors and unresolved tension with North Korea have prompted South Korea to pump 2.6% of its GDP and 15% of all government spending into its military, while maintaining compulsory conscription for men. ^[34] Consequently, South Korea has the world's sixth largest number of active troops,^[35] the world's second-largest number of reserve troops^[35] and the twelfth largest defence budget.

The South Korean military consists of the Army (ROKA), the Navy (ROKN), the Air Force (ROKAF), and the Marine Corps (ROKMC), and reserve forces.^[36] Many of these forces are concentrated near the Korean Demilitarized Zone. All South Korean males are constitutionally required to serve in the military, typically for a period of two years. However, there have been debates about shortening the length of the military services, and even dismissing the mandatory service itself. The government recently allowed some male students who were in the process of earning a university bachelor's degree and master's degree to dismiss the military requirements to allow them to further study and research their fields. Furthermore, Koreans of mixed race are exempt from military duty if they "look distinctively biracial".^[37]

The South Korean army has 2,300 tanks in operation,^[38] including the K1A1 and K2 Black Panther. The South Korean navy has the world's sixth largest fleet of destroyers, including the King Sejong the Great class destroyer, which has an Aegis guided missile system.^[39]. The South Korean airforce operates the ninth largest airforce in the world,^[40] including American fighters such as the F-15K, KF-16, and the indigenous T-50 Golden Eagle.^[41]

ROKN guided-missile destroyer Sejong the Great (DDG 991)

From time to time, South Korea has sent its troops overseas to assist American forces. It has participated in most major conflicts that the United States has been involved in the past 50 years. South Korea dispatched 32,000 troops to fight alongside American, Australian, Filipino, New Zealand and South Vietnamese soldiers in the Vietnam War, with a peak strength of 50,000. Most recently, South Korea sent 3,300 troops of the Zaytun Division to help re-building in northern Iraq, and was the 3rd largest contributor in the coalition forces after only the US and Britain.^[42]

The United States has stationed a substantial contingent of troops in South Korea since the Korean War to defend South Korea in case of a North Korean attack. There are also approximately 29,000 U.S. Military personnel stationed in Korea,^[43] most of them serving one year of unaccompanied tours. The American troops, which primarily are assigned to the Eighth United States Army are stationed in installations at Osan, Yongsan, Dongducheon, Sungbuk, and Daegu. A still functioning UN Command is technically the top of the chain of command of all forces in South Korea, including the US forces and the entire South Korean military. Although, if a sudden escalation of war between North and South Korea were to occur, as of currently, the United States would assume control of the South Korean Army in all military and paramilitary moves. However, in September 2006, the Presidents of the United States and the Republic of Korea agreed that South Korea should assume the lead for its own defense. In early 2007, the U.S. Secretary of Defense and ROK Minister of National Defense determined that South Korea will assume wartime operational control of its forces on April 17, 2012. U.S. Forces Korea will transform into a new jointwarfighting command, provisionally described as Korea Command (KORCOM).^[44]

[edit] Administrative divisions

Main article: Administrative divisions of South Korea

See also Special cities of Korea and Provinces of Korea

Principal divisions of South Korea

General map of South Korea

The major administrative divisions in South Korea are provinces, metropolitan cities (self-governing cities that are not part of any province), and one special city.

	Name^a	hangul	hanja	population
Special cities (Teukbyeolsi)^a
1	Seoul (Special City)	서울특별시	서울特別市	10,421,782
Metropolitan cities (Gwangyeoksi)^a
2	Busan	부산광역시	釜山廣域市	3,635,389
3	Incheon	인천광역시	仁川廣域市	2,628,000
4	Daegu	대구광역시	大邱廣域市	2,512,604
5	Gwangju	광주광역시	光州廣域市	1,415,953
6	Daejeon	대전광역시	大田廣域市	1,442,857
7	Ulsan	울산광역시	蔚山廣域市	1,087,958
Provinces (Do)^a
8	Gyeonggi-do	경기도	京畿道	10,415,399
9	Gangwon-do	강원도	江原道	1,592,000
10	Chungcheongbuk-do (Northern Chungcheong)	충청북도	忠淸北道	1,462,621
11	Chungcheongnam-do (Southern Chungcheong)	충청남도	忠淸南道	1,840,410
12	Jeollabuk-do (Northern Jeolla)	전라북도	全羅北道	1,890,669
13	Jeollanam-do (Southern Jeolla)	전라남도	全羅南道	1,994,287
14	Gyeongsangbuk-do (Northern Gyeongsang)	경상북도	慶尙北道	2,775,890
15	Gyeongsangnam-do (Southern Gyeongsang)	경상남도	慶尙南道	2,970,929
Special self-governing province (Teukbyeoljachi-do)^a
16	Jeju-teukbyeoljachido	제주특별자치도	濟州特別自治道	560,000

^a Revised Romanisation.

[edit] Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of South Korea

Main article: National parks of South Korea

Topography of South Korea

Boseong tea field.

South Korea occupies the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula, which extends some 680 miles (1,100 km) from the Asian mainland. This mountainous peninsula is flanked by the Yellow Sea to the west, and the Sea of Japan (East Sea) to the east. Its southern tip lies on the Korea Strait and the East China Sea.

The country's total area is 38,622.57 square miles (100,032.00 km²).^[45]

South Korea can be divided into four general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins, and rolling hills; a southwestern region of mountains and valleys; and a southeastern region dominated by the broad basin of the Nakdong River.

South Korea's terrain is mostly mountainous, most of which is not arable. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, constitute only 30% of the total land area.

About three thousand islands, mostly small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts of South Korea. Jeju-do is located about 100 kilometers (about 60 mi) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country's largest island, with an area of 1,845 square kilometres (712 sq mi). Jeju is also the site of South Korea's highest point: Hallasan, an extinct volcano, reaches 1,950 meters (6,398 ft) above sea level. The most eastern islands of South Korea include Ulleungdo and Liancourt Rocks (Dokdo in Korean), while Marado and Socotra Rock are the southernmost islands of South Korea.

South Korea has 20 national parks and some popular nature places like Boseong Tea Field, Suncheon Bay Ecological Park in South Jeolla province.

[edit] Climate

Seoul

Climate chart

J	F	M	A	M	J	J	A	S	O	N	D
23 1 -7	25 3 -5	47 10 0	94 17 7	92 23 13	134 26 17	369 29 22	294 30 22	169 26 17	50 20 10	53 11 3	21 4 -4
average max. and min. temperatures in °C
precipitation totals in mm
source: climate-charts.com

Imperial conversion[show]

South Korea has a humid continental climate and a humid subtropical climate, and is affected by the East Asian monsoon, with precipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season called jangma (장마), which begins end of June through the end of July. Winters can be cold: in Seoul, the average January temperature range is −7 °C to 1 °C (19 °F to 33 °F), and the average August temperature range is 22 °C to 30 °C (71 °F to 86 °F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior. Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds and heavy rains. The average annual precipitation varies from 1,370 millimeters (54 inches) in Seoul to 1,470 millimeters (58 inches) in Busan. There are occasional typhoons that bring high winds and floods.

[edit] Environment

Main article: Environment of South Korea

Cheonggyecheon, a stream running through Seoul, was restored after being paved over for a motorway.

During the first 20 years of South Korea's growth surge, little effort was made to preserve the environment.^[46] Unchecked industrialization has resulted in deforestation and the ongoing destruction of wetlands such as the Songdo Tidal Flat.^[47] However, there have been recent efforts to balance these problems, including a government run $84 billion five-year green growth project that aims to boost energy efficiency and green technology.^[48]^[49] The Green based economic strategy is a comprehensive overhaul of South Korea’s economy, equaling at nearly two percent of the national GDP.^[48] The initiative includes greening such as a nation wide bike network, solar and wind energy, lowering oil dependent vehicles, backing daylight savings and extensive usage of environmentally friendly technologies such as LED in electronics and lighting.^[50] The country, already the world's most wired plans to build a nation wide next generation internet 10 times faster than broadband to reduce energy usage.^[51] The Seoul's tap water recently became safe to drink, with city offials branding it "Arisu" in a bid to convince the public.^[52] Efforts have also been made with afforestation projects. Another multi-billion dollar project was the restoration of Cheonggyecheon, a stream running through central Seoul that had earlier been paved over by a motorway.^[53]) One major challenge is air quality, with acid rain, sulphur oxides and annual yellow dust storms being particular problems.^[46] It is acknowledged that much of these difficulties are a result of South Korea's proximity to China, which is a major air polluter.^[46]

South Korea is a member of Antarctic-Environmental Protocol, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity Treaty, Kyoto Protocol (forming the Environmental Integrity Group (EIG), regarding UNFCCC^[54], with Mexico and Switzerland), Desertification, Endangered Species, Environmental Modification, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, and Whaling.^[55]

[edit] Economy

Main article: Economy of South Korea

Teheran Street in the Gangnam district of Seoul, also colloquially known as Teheran Valley, is one of the most business centered streets in South Korea.

South Korea's nominal GDP growth from 1960 to 2007, in billions of US dollars. The Koreans termed this rapid growth the Miracle on the Han River.

Hyundai Kia Automotive Group is the world's fourth largest automaker in terms of units sold.

South Korea had the world's second-fastest growing economy from 1960 to 1990.^[56] Korea's transformation into a developed country during this time was termed the Miracle on the Han River, and South Korea was considered one of the Four Asian Tigers. The growth surge was initially achieved by paying low wages to manufacture labour-intensive goods, aimed at export.^[57] South Korea is a member of the OECD, and is classified as a high-income economy by the World Bank and an advanced economy by the IMF and CIA^[58]^[59] and a developed market by the FTSE Group. However, it is still considered an emerging market by MSCI due to "lack of full convertibility of the won, the rigidity of the identification system, and anti-competitive practices".^[60]

Today, the South Korean economy is dominated by large business groups known as Chaebol. These include companies such as Samsung, LG, Hyundai-Kia and SK. The Chaebol are government-supported powerful global multinationals owning numerous international enterprises. The Korean word means "business family" or "monopoly" and is often used the way "conglomerate" is used in English.^[61]

Despite lacking natural resources and having the smallest territory among the G-20 major economies, the South Korean economy is the fourth largest in Asia and 15th largest in the world. Like West Germany and Japan, rapid industrialization since the 1960s has made South Korea one of the world's top ten exporters. It is the seventh largest trading partner of the United States^[62] and the eighth largest trading partner of the European Union.^[63] In 2009, South Korea was ranked as the most innovative country in the world among major economies by the BCG and NAM.^[64]

South Korea is the world's largest shipbuilder,^[65]^[66] and one of the world's top five automobile manufacturing nations.^[67] South Korea is also dominant in crude oil imports,^[68]^[69] refined oil exports,^[70] and the building construction industry.^[71]

Its capital, Seoul, has been listed as one of the world's top ten financial and commercial cities by Forbes and Mastercard,^[72]^[73] and is the center of the service industry in South Korea^[74]^[75]

In 2008, Free Trade Agreements with the US (also known as KORUS FTA) and EU were carried out.^[76] At that time, Korea's GDP (PPP) per capita was estimated at $27,646.^[77]

[edit] High-tech industries

South Korea is the world's largest maker of LCD, Plasma display, OLED and CRT displays,^[78] led by LG Display and Samsung SDI.

South Korea has a high-tech infrastructure,^[79] with the world's highest broadband internet access per capita,^[80]^[81] and the fastest average Internet connections.^[82]

In consumer electronics, South Korea is the world's largest LCD, OLED, CRT and plasma display maker.^[83] The South Korean companies Samsung and LG are among the top three manufacturers of televisions ^[84] and mobile phones.^[85]

South Korea also exports radioactive isotope production equipment for medical and industrial use to countries such as Russia, Japan and Turkey.^[86]

The government is also investing in the robotics industry.^[87]^[88] There are also plans to develop other sectors, including financial services, biotechnology and aerospace industries.

South Korea was the first country to start Digital Multimedia Broadcasting in 2005^[89] and wireless broadband Internet in 2006 and nation-wide 100 Mbit/s fibre-optic broadband network, which is being upgraded to 1 Gbit/s by 2013.^[90]

[edit] Transportation and energy

Main articles: Transport in South Korea and Nuclear power in South Korea

Incheon International Airport, rated the best airport worldwide consecutively since 2005 by Airports Council International.^[91]

Banpo Bridge, a gigantic rainbow fountain with nearly 10,000 LED nozzles pumping out 190 tonnes of water every minute over Han River.

An Express Bus Terminal on Seoul Subway Line 9.

South Korea has a technologically advanced transportation network consisting of high-speed railways, highways, bus routes, ferry services, and air routes that criss-cross the country. Korea Expressway Corporation operates the toll highways and service amenities en route.

Korail provides frequent train service to all major South Korean cities. Two rail lines, Gyeongui and Donghae Bukbu Line, to North Korea are now being reconnected. The Korean high-speed rail system, KTX, provides high-speed service along Gyeongbu and Honam Line. Major cities—including Seoul,^[92] Busan, Incheon, Daegu, Daejeon and Gwangju—have subway systems. Metropolitan Cities (gwangyeoksi, self-governing cities that are not incorporated into any province) have express bus terminals.

Construction of South Korea's largest airport, Incheon International Airport, was completed in 2001. By 2007, the airport was serving 30 million passengers a year.^[93] The airport has been selected as the "Best Airport Worldwide" for four consecutive years since 2005 by Airports Council International.^[91] Other international airports include Gimpo, Busan and Jeju. There are also seven domestic airports, and a large number of heliports.^[94]

Korean Air, founded in 1962, served 21,640,000 passengers, including 12,490,000 international passengers in 2008.^[95] A second carrier, Asiana Airlines, established in 1988, also serves domestic and international traffic. Combined, South Korean airlines currently serve 297 international routes.^[96] Smaller airliners, such as Hansung Airlines and Jeju Air, provide domestic service with lower fares.

South Korea is the world's sixth largest nuclear power producer and the second-largest in Asia.^[97] Nuclear power in South Korea supplies 45% of electricity production and research is very active with investigation into a variety of advanced reactors, including a small modular reactor, a liquid-metal fast/transmutation reactor and a high-temperature hydrogen generation design. Fuel production and waste handling technologies have also been developed locally. It is also a member of the ITER project.

[edit] Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Korea

Yi So-yeon, South Korea's first spaceflight participant^[98]

[edit] Aerospace research

Main article: Korea Aerospace Research Institute

South Korea has launched two satellites, Arirang-1 in 1999 and Arirang-2 in 2006, as part of its space partnership with Russia.^[99]

Naro Space Center, the first spaceport of South Korea, was completed in 2008 at Goheung, Jeollanam-do. The Korea Space Launch Vehicle was launched from Naro in the 2009 but failed.^[100]

In April 2008, Yi So-yeon became the first Korean to fly in space, aboard the Russian Soyuz TMA-12.

Albert HUBO,developed by KAIST, can make expressive gestures with its 5 separate fingers.

[edit] Robotics

Robotics has been included in the list of main national R&D projects in Korea since 2003.^[101] In 2009, the government announced plans to build robot-themed parks in Incheon and Masan with a mix of public and private funding.^[102]

In 2005, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology developed the world's second walking humanoid robot, HUBO. A team in the Korea Institute of Industrial Technology developed the first Korean android, EveR-1 in May 2006. EveR-1 has been succeeded by more complex models with improved movement and vision. Next models are scheduled to be completed by 2010.

[edit] Biotechnology

Since the 1980s, the Korean government has actively invested in the development of a domestic biotechnology industry, and the sector is projected to grow to $6.5 billion by 2010.^[103] Medical sector accounts for a large part of the production, including production of hepatitis vaccines and antibiotics.

Recently, research and development in genetics and cloning has received increasing attention, with the first successful cloning of a dog, Snuppy, and the cloning of two females of an endangered species of wolves by the Seoul National University in 2007.^[104]

The rapid growth of the industry has resulted in significant voids in regulation of ethics, as was highlighted by the scientific misconduct case involving Hwang Woo-Suk.^[105]

[edit] Education

Main article: Education in South Korea

Yonsei University, Seoul

Education in South Korea is regarded as being crucial to one's success and competition is consequently very heated and fierce. In the 2006 results of the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment, South Korea came first in problem solving, third in mathematics and eleventh in science.^[106]^{[unreliable source?]}

A centralised administration in South Korea oversees the process for the education of children from kindergarten to the third and final year of high school. South Korea has adopted a new educational program to increase the number of their foreign students through the year 2010. According to Ministry of Education, Science and Technology estimate, by that time, the number of scholarships for foreign students in South Korea will be doubled, and the number of foreign students will reach 100,000.^[107] The school year is divided into two semesters, the first of which begins in the beginning of March and ends in mid-July, the second of which begins in late August and ends in mid-February.The schedules are not uniformly standardized and vary from school to school.

[edit] Demographics

A view of Gangnam-gu in Seoul, the world's second-largest metropolitan area.

Main articles: Demographics of South Korea and Koreans

South Korea is noted for its population density, which at 487 per square kilometer is more than 10 times the global average. Most South Koreans live in urban areas, due to rapid migration from the countryside during the country's quick economic expansion in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s.^[108] The capital city of Seoul is also the country's largest city and chief industrial center. According to 2005 census, Seoul had a population of 9.8 million inhabitants. The Seoul National Capital Area has 24.5 million inhabitants making it the world's second largest metropolitan area. Other major cities include Busan (3.5 million), Incheon (2.5 million), Daegu (2.5 million), Daejeon (1.4 million), Gwangju (1.4 million) and Ulsan (1 million).^[109]

The population has also been shaped by international migration. Following the division of the Korean peninsula after World War II, about four million people from North Korea crossed the border to South Korea. This trend of net entry reversed over the next forty years due to emigration, especially to the United States and Canada. South Korea’s total population in 1960 was 25 million.^[110] The current population of South Korea is roughly 49,540,000.^[111]

South Korea is a homogeneous society with an absolute majority of the population of Korean ethnicity.^[112] Although small, the percentage of non-Koreans has been increasing. As of 2009^[update], South Korea had 1,106,884 foreign residents, more than double the 2006 total. Migrants from the People's Republic of China (PRC) make up 56.5% of the total; however, many of them are Joseonjok, PRC citizens of Korean ethnicity.^[113] The roughly 33,000 Mongolian immigrants are believed to be the largest community of Mongolian citizens residing abroad.^[114]^[115] Another notable group is women from Southeast Asia who comprised 41% of new marriages with Korean farmers in 2006.^[116] There are also 31,000 US military personnel.^[117]

South Korea's birthrate is the world's lowest.^[118] If this continues, its population is expected to decrease by 13 percent to 42.3 million in 2050,^[119] South Korea's annual birthrate is approximately 9 births per 1000 people.^[120] The average Life expectancy in 2008 was 79.10 years,^[121] which is 40th in the world.^[122]

[edit] Cities of South Korea

Main article: List of cities in South Korea

The figure below lists the twenty largest cities within administrative city limits; the figures below only include long-term residents.

Largest cities of South Korea
Seoul Busan Incheon		Cities	Provincial level divisions	Population		Cities	Provincial level divisions	Population	view • talk • edit Daegu Daejeon Gwangju
	1	Seoul	Seoul	10,456,034	11	Bucheon	Gyeonggi-do	854,348
	2	Busan	Busan	3,596,076	12	Yongin	Gyeonggi-do	677,665
	3	Incheon	Incheon	2,741,217	13	Ansan	Gyeonggi-do	670,884
	4	Daegu	Daegu & Gyeongsangbuk-do	2,512,601	14	Cheongju	Chungcheongbuk-do	628,150
	5	Daejeon	Daejeon & Chungcheongnam-do	1,494,951	15	Anyang	Gyeonggi-do	625,426
	6	Gwangju	Gwangju	1,434,625	16	Jeonju	Jeollabuk-do	623,060
	7	Ulsan	Ulsan	1,126,879	17	Pohang	Gyeongsangbuk-do	508,051
	8	Suwon	Gyeonggi-do	1,090,678	18	Cheonan	Chungcheongnam-do	506,788
	9	Seongnam	Gyeonggi-do	958,349	19	Changwon	Gyeongsangnam-do	504,118
	10	Goyang	Gyeonggi-do	950,750	20	Gimhae	Gyeongsangnam-do	436,640

[edit] Religion

Main article: Religion in South Korea

South Korea religiosity
religion			percent
No religion(Inc.Atheism)			46.5%
Buddhism			22.8%
Protestantism			18.3%
Roman Catholic Church			10.9%
Islam			0.4%
Other religions			0.4%
Won Buddhism			0.3%
Confucianism			0.2%
Cheondoism			0.1%

The Seokguram Grotto in Bulguksa temple, UNESCO World Heritage Site

Just under half of South Koreans profess no religious beliefs. Those who do are mostly Christian or Buddhist, along with minor traditional religions practiced in small regions. Other religions include Islam and various new religious movements such as Jeungism, Daesunism, Cheondoism and Wonbuddhism.

Christianity is South Korea's largest religion, accounting for more than half of all South Korean religious adherents. There are approximately 15 million Christians^[123] in South Korea today, with more than two-thirds of Christians belonging to the Protestant group, while about 15% belong to the Catholic group. The largest Christian church in South Korea, Yoido Full Gospel Church, is located in Seoul. Roman Catholicism has been the fastest growing denomination in South Korea since the late 1980s.^[124] South Korea is also the second-largest missionary-sending nation.^[125]

Buddhism was introduced to Korea from China in the year 372.^[126] According to the national census as of 2005, South Korea has over 10.7 million Buddhists.^[123]^[127] Today, about 90% of Korean Buddhists belong to Jogye Order. Most of the National Treasures of South Korea are Buddhist artifacts. Along with Neo-Confucianism, Buddhism was also a state religion during the periods from Three Kingdoms of Korea to Goryeo before suppression under the Joseon Dynasty.^[128]

There are an estimated 45,000 Muslim Koreans, in addition to some 100,000 foreign workers from Muslim countries,^[129] particularly Bangladesh and Pakistan.^[130]

[edit] Culture

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2009)

The Dancheong of Gyeongbokgung, Seoul.

Main articles: Culture of Korea and South Korean culture

South Korea shares its traditional culture with North Korea, but the two Koreas have developed distinct contemporary forms of culture since the peninsula was divided in 1945. Historically, while the culture of Korea has been heavily influenced by that of neighbouring China, it has nevertheless managed to develop a unique and distinct cultural identity from its larger neighbour.^[131] The South Korean Ministry of Culture and Tourism actively encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs.^[132] The industrialization and urbanization of South Korea have brought many changes to the way Korean people live. Changing economics and lifestyles have led to a concentration of population in major cities, especially the capital Seoul, with multi-generational households separating into nuclear family living arrangements.

There were 8 UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Korea and recently Royal Tombs of the Joseon Dynasty was added, with a total of 9.

[edit] Entertainment

In addition to domestic consumption, South Korean mainstream culture, including televised drama, films, and popular music, also generates significant exports to various parts of the world. This phenomenon, often called "Hallyu" or the "Korean Wave", has swept many countries in Asia and other parts of the world.

Until the 1990s, trot and ballads dominated Korean popular music. The emergence of the rap group Seo Taiji and Boys in 1992 marked a turning point for Korean popular music, also known as K-Pop, as the group incorporated elements of American popular musical genres of rap, rock, and techno into its music. Hip hop, dance and ballad oriented acts have become dominant in the Korean popular music scene, though trot is still popular among older Koreans. Many K-Pop stars and groups are also well known abroad, especially in Asia.

Since the success of the film Shiri in 1999, Korean film has begun to gain recognition internationally. Domestic film has a dominant share of the market, partly due to the existence of screen quotas requiring cinemas to show Korean films at least 73 days a year.

Korean television shows, especially the short form dramatic mini-series called "dramas", have also become popular outside of Korea, becoming another driving trend for the Korean Wave in Asia. The trend has generated internationally known Korean stars and has boosted the image of Korean popular culture. The dramas are popular mostly in Asia, but also within Asian-American communities in North America, Australia, Europe, and elsewhere. The stories have a wide range, but the most prominent among the export dramas have been romance dramas, such as Autumn Fairy Tale, Winter Sonata, Full House (2004 TV series), All About Eve, and historical/fantasy dramas, such as Dae Jang Geum, The Legend and Goong.

[edit] Cuisine

Main article: Korean cuisine

Sujeonggwa

Bulgogi, a traditional Korean barbecue made of either beef or pork

Korean cuisine, hanguk yori (한국요리, 韓國料理), or hansik (한식, 韓食), has evolved through centuries of social and political change. Ingredients and dishes vary by province. There are many significant regional dishes that have proliferated in different variations across the country in the present day. The Korean royal court cuisine once brought all of the unique regional specialties together for the royal family. Meals consumed both by the royal family and ordinary Korean citizens have been regulated by a unique culture of etiquette.

Korean cuisine is largely based on rice, noodles, tofu, vegetables, fish and meats. Traditional Korean meals are noted for the number of side dishes, banchan (반찬), which accompany steam-cooked short-grain rice. Every meal is accompanied by numerous banchan. Kimchi, a fermented, usually spicy vegetable dish is commonly served at every meal and is one of the best known Korean dishes. Korean cuisine usually involves heavy seasoning with sesame oil, doenjang (된장), a type of (fermented soybean paste), soy sauce, salt, garlic, ginger, and gochujang (고추장), a hot pepper paste.

Soups are also a common part of a Korean meal and are served as part of the main course rather than at the beginning or the end of the meal. Soups known as guk (국) are often made with meats, shellfish and vegetables. Similar to guk, tang (탕) has less water, and is more often served in restaurants. Another type is jjigae (찌개), a stew that is typically heavily seasoned with chili pepper and served boiling hot.

[edit] Technology culture

PC bang

Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) on a mobile phone

In recent years online games have become a significant part of Korean culture. StarCraft, the real-time strategy game is by far the most popular televised game in South Korea. Game tournaments, recorded in places like the COEX Mall are often broadcast live on TV stations such as MBCGame and Ongamenet. Professional StarCraft players can command considerable salaries in South Korea as members of pro-gaming teams that are sponsored primarily by cell phone providers. PC games are usually played in PC bangs which are basically internet cafes, dedicated to LAN games of popular titles like Kart Rider, Maple Story, World of Warcraft, Mabinogi and Lineage.

South Korean corporations Samsung and LG are the second- and third-largest cell phone companies in the world, and South Korean consumers change their phones on average every 11 months. An estimated 90% of South Koreans own mobile phones and use them not only for calling and messaging but also for watching Digital Multimedia Broadcasting (DMB) or viewing websites. Over one million DMB phones have been sold and the three major wireless communications providers SK Telecom, KTF, and LG Telecom provide coverage in all major cities and other areas.

The Cheongja unhak sanggam mun maebyeong from the Goryeo Dynasty.

[edit] Art

Main article: Korean art

Korean art has been highly influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism. There are well-known Korean pottery and porcelain like Baekja and Buncheong. Also Korean tea ceremony, Pansori, Talchum and Buchaechum are popular Korean performing arts. Hanbok is the traditional Korean dress. Nowadays, people wear it during traditional festivals and celebrations. It has many germants like Dopo (clothing), Durumagi and Jeogori, so it is worn as semi-formal or formal wear.

[edit] Architecture

Main article: Architecture of South Korea

Main article: Korean architecture

Modern skyline of Seoul and the Deoksugung palace.

Pre-modern Korean architecture may be divided into two main styles: these used in palace and temple structures, and these used in the houses of common people, which consisted of local variations.

Korean's ancient architects adopted the bracket system and is characterized by thatched roofs and heated floors called ondol. People of the upper classes built bigger houses with tiled roofs. The roofs were elegantly curved and accentuated with slightly uplifting eaves. There still are many sites like Hahoe Folk Village, Yangdong Village of Gyeongju and Korean Folk Village where the traditional Korean architecture is preserved.

[edit] Sports

Main article: Sport in South Korea

Hapkido tournament

The martial art taekwondo originated in Korea. In the 1950s and 60s, modern rules were standardised, and Taekwondo became an official Olympic sport in 2000. Other Korean martial arts include taekkyeon, hapkido, tang soo do, kuk sool won, kumdo and subak.

Baseball was first introduced to Korea in 1905 and has since become the most popular spectator sport in South Korea.^[133] The first South Korean professional sports league was the Korea Baseball Organization, established in 1982. South Korea finished third during the 2006 World Baseball Classic and second during the 2009 World Baseball Classic. In the 2008 Olympics held in Beijing, South Korea won the gold medal in baseball.

World Peace Gate at Olympic Park, Seoul

In 1988, South Korea hosted the Summer Olympics in Seoul, coming fourth with 12 gold medals, 10 silver medals and 11 bronze medals. South Korea regularly performs well in archery, shooting, table tennis, badminton, short track speed skating, handball, hockey, freestyle wrestling, baseball, judo, taekwondo, and weightlifting. South Korea also hosted the Asian Games in 1986 (Seoul) and 2002 (Busan), and will host again in 2014 (Incheon). It also hosted the Asian Winter Games in 1999, the Winter Universiade in 1997 and the Summer Universiade in 2003.

In the 2002 FIFA World Cup, jointly hosted by South Korea and Japan, the national football team became the first team in the Asian Football Confederation to reach the semi-finals.

In 2010, South Korea will host their first Formula One race to be staged at the Korean International Circuit in Yeongam, about 400 kilometres (250 mi) south of Seoul. In 2011, the South Korean city of Daegu will host the 2011 IAAF World Championships in Athletics.

[edit] See also

Main article: Outline of South Korea

Index of South Korea-related articles
Invest KOREA Korea's national investment promotion agency

[edit] Notes

^ According to Oral Tradition
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^ http://www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=4509&page=1
^ Population density calculated using surface area and population figures from [1].
^ Ancient civilizations
^ http://www.opm.go.kr/warp/webapp/content/view?meta_id=english&id=35
^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/322280/South-Korea/34997/Economic-and-social-developments
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^ http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-11/21/content_393440.htm
^ The Economist Intelligence Unit's Index of Democracy 2008
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^ http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-03/03/content_10933684.htm
^ ^a ^b Asia Times – News and analysis from Korea; North and South
^ A Brief History of the US-Korea Relations Prior to 1945. "While less than 100 Koreans in America enlisted in the US military during World War II, more than 100,000 Koreans served in the Japanese army as officers and soldiers. There were two Korean Lt. Generals in the Japanese Army: a Chosun prince, whose rank was honorary and who commanded no troops; and Lt. Gen. Hong Sa-Ik, who was a professional military man from the old Chosun army."
^ "Truth Commission on Forced Mobilization under the japanese Imperialism Republic of Korea.". http://www.gangje.go.kr/admin_view0305.asp?idx=711&page=1. Retrieved 18/03/9.
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^ http://edition.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/asiapcf/06/03/koreas.agree/index.html
^ <http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/rok/budget.htm
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^ GlobalSecurity on Military of Republic of Korea http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/rok/index.html
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^ ROK Air Force Equipment
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^ ^a ^b ^c http://74.125.155.132/search?q=cache:h-TUQm6gWTMJ:www.american.edu/TED/KORPOLL.htm+pollution+korea&cd=1&hl=en&ct=clnk&client=firefox-a
^ http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_opinion/373552.html
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^ Seoul Metropolitan Government – "A Clean, Attractive & Global City, Seoul!"
^ http://unfccc.int/parties_and_observers/parties/negotiating_groups/items/2714.php
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^ The Innovation Imperative in Manufacturing: How the United States Can Restore Its Edge
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^ autoindustry.co.uk
^ World's Fourth Largest Crude Oil Importer - http://www.energykorea.or.kr
^ Rising import costs cloud S.Korean economy
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^ KOIS (2003), p.632.

[edit] References

Cumings, Bruce (1997). Korea's place in the sun. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-31681-5.
KOIS (Korea Overseas Information Service) (2003). Handbook of Korea, 11th ed.. Seoul: Hollym. ISBN 1-56591-212-8.
Nahm, Andrew C. (1996). Korea: A history of the Korean people (2nd ed.). Seoul: Hollym. ISBN 1-56591-070-2.
Yang, Sung Chul (1999). The North and South Korean political systems: A comparative analysis (rev. ed.). Seoul: Hollym. ISBN 1-56591-105-9.
Yonhap News Agency (2004). Korea Annual 2004. Seoul: Author. ISBN 89-7433-070-9.
Dennis Hart (2003). From Tradition to Consumption: Constructing a Capitalist Culture in South Korea. Seoul: Author. ISBN 89-88095-44-8.
Michael Breen (2004). The Koreans: Who They Are, What They Want, Where Their Future Lies. St. Martin's Griffin. ISBN 0312326092.